Indus Valley Civilization
It was a Bronze Age civilization (flourished in 3300–1300 BCE mature period 2600–1900 BCE) extending from northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India . Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early civilizations of the Old World, and the most widespread among them,covering an area of 1.25 million km2. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, one of the major rivers of Asia, and the now dried up Sarasvati River, which once coursed through northwest India and eastern Pakistan.
By the middle of the 3rd millennium, a uniform culture had developed at settlements spread across nearly 500,000 square miles, including parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Baluchistan, Sindh and the Makran coast.
The cities were far more advanced than their counterparts in prehistoric Egypt, Mesopotamia or anywhere else in Western Asia.
Important sites of Indus valley culture
Year Site Discovered by
192I Harappa Dayaram Sahni
I922 Mohenjodaro R. D. Banerjee
I927 Sutkagendor R. L. Staine
I93I Chanhudaro N. G. Majumdar
1953 Rangpur M. Vats
I953 Kalibangan A. Ghosh
[955 Ropar Y. D. Sharma
I957 Lothal S. R. Rao
1972 Surkotada .I. Joshi
1973 Banwali R. S. Bisht
Dholavira R. S. Bisht
Ganverivala Rafeeq Mugal
RakhiGarhi Rafeeq Mugal
Important Sources of Materials
Material Source
Gold Afghanistan, Persia, Karnataka
Silver Afghanistan. Iran
Copper Baluchistan & Khetri (Rajasthan)
Tin Afghanistan. Central Asia
Agates Western India
Chalcedony Saurashtra
Lead Rajasthan. South India.Afghanistan. Iran
Lapis Lazuli Badakhshan (N. Afghanistan)
Turquoise Central Asia. Iran
Amethyst Maharashtra Jade,Central Asia
Carnelian Saurashtra
Difference Between Pre-Harappan and Proto-Harappan Cultures
Cultures that preceded Harappan culture are pre-Harappan, while proto-Harappan cultures are those pre-Harappan cultures which have some close similarities with the Harappan culture or which may be said to have anticipated certain essential elements of Harappan culture. In short, all proto-Harappan cultures are necessarily pre-Harappan cultures, but all pre-Harappan cultures are not necessarily proto-Harappan cultures.
Script and Language
Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish and a variety of human forms. The script was boustrophedon i.e. written from right to left in one line and then from left to right in the next line. The number of signs of the Harappan script is known to be between 400 and 600. The language of the Harappans is still unknown because Harappan script is still undeciphered.
Pottery
Harappan Pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well baked.
It is chiefly wheel made, and consists of both plain and painted ware, the plain variety being more common.
Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed, polychrome, incised, perforated
and knobbed. The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the ancient world.
On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character, though the painted designs on
some pieces show a remarkable artistic touch.
Seals
These are the greatest artistic creations of the Indus people.
Most commonly made of steatite (soft stone).
The technique of cutting and polishing these seals with white luster was a unique invention of the
Harappans.
The majority of the seals have an animal engraved on them with a short inscription.
Unicorn is the animal most frequently represented on the seals.
Main type - (a) the square type with a carved animal and inscription,
(b) the rectangular type with inscription only.
Burial Practices
Three forms of burials are found at Mohenjodaro are complete burials. fractional burials (burial of some bones after the exposure of the body to wild beasts birds) and post-cremation burials.
But the general practice was extended inhumation, the body lying on us back, with the head generally to the north.
Religion
The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Siva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne, and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each lacing a different direction, and two deer appear at his feet.
The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms
There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of the phallus, have been discovered.
The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal. Kalibangan and Harappa.
Indus people also worshipped Gods in the form of trees (peepal, etc.) and animals (unicorn etc)
Further they believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.
Trade and Commerce
Inter regional trade was carried on with Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, South India, parts of Western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Foreign trade was conducted mainly with Mesopotamia and Bahrain. Trade was carried on by overland as well as overseas transport.
Bullock carts and pack-oxen were employed for land transport. There is evidence of sea and river transport by ships and boats in several seals and terracotta models, apart from the dockyard at Lothal. The Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with 'Meluha’ which was the ancient name given to
Indus region and they also speak of two intermediate stations called Dilmun (identified with Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast).
Decline of Harappan culture
After 2000 BC, the Indus culture slowly declined and gradually faded out. Some ascribe this to the
decreasing fertility of the soil on account of the increasing salinity, caused by the expansion of the
neighbouring desert. Some says that indus river flooded the region .
Still others point out that the Aryans destroyed it.
According to some scholars, decline of trade, particularly oceanic trade with the Sumerians,must have contributed partly in the decline. Even though there are various theories for the downfall of this
civilization, the most accepted version is that of ecological destruction.
Major Sites of Indus Valley civilization
1. Harappa
Harappa was an Indus civilization urban center. It lies in Punjab Province, Pakistan, on an old bed of the River Ravi.
The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then the Punjab province of British India, and is now in Pakistan
The Great Granary measuring 1 69 ft x 3 5 feet is the largest and the most remarkable structure found at Harappa.
So far 891 seals have been recovered from Harappa, and that is 40% of the total number of seals belonging to Indus Valley Civilization that have been found.
A red sandstone naked male torso has been found, which shows traces of Jainism
Between the granary and the citadel, have also been found a series of circular platforms, probably for the pounding of grain.
At a lower level below the granary, platforms and the citadel were crowded one-room dwellings, which suggest slave habitats.
2. Mohenjo daro
Great Bath, uniform buildings and weights, hidden drains and other hallmarks of the civilization were discovered in the 1920's. This is where the most unicorn seals have been found. Due to a rising water table, most of the site remains unexcavated, and its earliest levels have not been reached
In Sindhi language, the word Mohenjo Daro means mound of the dead’.
It is the largest of all Indus cities
The Great Bath is the most important public place, measuring 39 feet (length) X 23 feet (breadth) X 8 feet (depth).Located at the center of the citadel, it is remarkable for beautiful brickwork Its floor is made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar. It must have served as a ritual-bathing site
Remains have been found of an oblong multi-pillared assembly hall and a big rectangular building, which must have served administrative purposes.
Most of Mohenjodaro houses are built of kiln-fired brick
The major streets are 33 feet wide and run north-south, intersecting subordinate ones, running east-west at right angles.
The evidence of Indian ships (figured on a seal) and a piece of woven cloth has been discovered from here
There is a large granary consisting of podium of square blocks of burnt-bricks with a wooden superstructure
Parallel rows of two-roomed cottages found The workmen or poor sections Of the society perhaps used these cottages.
A bronze dancing girl,steatite statue of a priest and a seal bearing Pashupati have been found here
It is important to remember that Mohenjo daro shows nine levels of occupation towering over 300 feet above the present flood plain
Excavation reveals that the city was flooded More than seven times
3. Kalibangan
Has pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phases.
Less developed compared to Mohenjodaro
There is evidence of mud-brick fortification
Pre-Harappan phase here shows that the fields were ploughed unlike the Harappan period.
Archaeologists have discovered two platforms (within the citadel) with fire altars suggesting the practice of cult sacrifice
The existence of wheel conveyance is proved by a cartwheel having a single hub
4. Chanhudaro
Only Indus city without a citadel.
Chanhudaro is 80 miles south of Mohenjo Daro in Sindh.
It was a manufacturing center. Various tool, shell, bone and seal-making facilities which involved writing were found.
Beads were made using efficiently layered floors
Existence of Pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phase
A small pot was discovered here, which was probably an ink pot.
Excavations reveal that people of Chanhudaro were expert craftsmen. Archaeologists have discovered here metalworkers,shell-ornament makers and bead-makers shops
The city was twice destroyed by inundations.Here more extensive but indirect evidence of super-imposition of a barbarian lifestyle is seen
5. Dholavira
Dholavira is located on Khadir Beyt, an island in the Great Rann of Kutch in Gujarat State, India.
It is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana
It has only been excavated since 1990. As large as Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, it has some of the best preserved stone architecture.
A tantalizing signboard with Indus script has also been discovered.
The other Harappan towns were divided into two parts — Citadel and the Lower Town, but Dholavira was divided into three principal divisions, two of which were strongly protected by rectangular fortifications.
There are two inner enclosures — the first one hemmed in the citadel (which probably housed the highest authority)and the second one protected the middle town (meant for the close relatives of the rulers and other officials). The existence of this middle town, apart from the lower town, is the real exclusive feature of this city.
Dholavira appears to have had several large reservoirs, and an elaborate system of drains to collect water from the city walls and house tops to fill these water tanks.
6. Banwali
Like Kalibangan, Amri, Kot Diji and Harappa, Banwali also saw two cultural phases - pre-Harappan and Harappan.
Human and animal figures, clay bangles and statue of mother Goddess found here.
A large quantity of barley, sesame and mustard found here.
7. Surkotada
Excavations reveal a citadel and a lower town, both of which were fortified.
It is the only Indus site where the remains of a horse have actually been round.
8. Kot Diji
Pre-Harappan and Harappan phases found.
According to excavations, the city was probably destroyed due to fire
Wheel made painted pottery, traces of a defensive wall and well-aligned streets, knowledge of metallurgy, artistic toys etc.
Five figurines of Mother Goddess discovered.
9. Ropar
The excavations have yielded many cultures — Harappan, Kushana-Gupta and Medieval.
The evidence of burying a dog below the human burial is very interesting
One example of rectangular mudbrick ‘chamber was noticed.
10. Lothal
Only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. It must have served as the main seaport of the Indus people It was surrounded by a massive brick wall, probably as flood protection.
Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC) The only other Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmedabad.
Fire altars, indicating the probable existence of a fire cult, have been found
A doubtful terracotta figurine of horse is found here
11. Ganeriwala
Ganeriwala is in Punjab, Pakistan near the Indian border.
It was first discovered by Sir Aurel Stein and surveyed by Dr. M. R. Mughal in the 1970s.
It spreads over 80 hectares and is almost as large as Mohenjo Daro. It is near a dry bed of the former Ghaggar or Sarasvati River, and has not been excavated, yet.
Equidistant between Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, Ganweriwala may have been a fifth major urban center.
12. Gola Dhoro
(Also known as Bagasara) is a site in Gujarat, India, excavated from 1996 to 2004.
A distinctive ancient Indus seal was found there, as well as extensive evidence for the sudden evacuation of this tiny town with well stocked manufacturing facilities.
13. Daimabad
Daimabad is in Maharashtra near Bombay. Discovered in 1958, it is a controversial site.
Some suggest that the pottery and single shard with ancient Indus signs on it is definitive of Harappan settlement; others say the evidence is not sufficient.
A unique hoard of exquisite bronze chariots and animals that may or may not be of Indus Civilization style was also found here
It was a Bronze Age civilization (flourished in 3300–1300 BCE mature period 2600–1900 BCE) extending from northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India . Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early civilizations of the Old World, and the most widespread among them,covering an area of 1.25 million km2. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, one of the major rivers of Asia, and the now dried up Sarasvati River, which once coursed through northwest India and eastern Pakistan.
By the middle of the 3rd millennium, a uniform culture had developed at settlements spread across nearly 500,000 square miles, including parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Baluchistan, Sindh and the Makran coast.
The cities were far more advanced than their counterparts in prehistoric Egypt, Mesopotamia or anywhere else in Western Asia.
Important sites of Indus valley culture
Year Site Discovered by
192I Harappa Dayaram Sahni
I922 Mohenjodaro R. D. Banerjee
I927 Sutkagendor R. L. Staine
I93I Chanhudaro N. G. Majumdar
1953 Rangpur M. Vats
I953 Kalibangan A. Ghosh
[955 Ropar Y. D. Sharma
I957 Lothal S. R. Rao
1972 Surkotada .I. Joshi
1973 Banwali R. S. Bisht
Dholavira R. S. Bisht
Ganverivala Rafeeq Mugal
RakhiGarhi Rafeeq Mugal
Important Sources of Materials
Material Source
Gold Afghanistan, Persia, Karnataka
Silver Afghanistan. Iran
Copper Baluchistan & Khetri (Rajasthan)
Tin Afghanistan. Central Asia
Agates Western India
Chalcedony Saurashtra
Lead Rajasthan. South India.Afghanistan. Iran
Lapis Lazuli Badakhshan (N. Afghanistan)
Turquoise Central Asia. Iran
Amethyst Maharashtra Jade,Central Asia
Carnelian Saurashtra
Difference Between Pre-Harappan and Proto-Harappan Cultures
Cultures that preceded Harappan culture are pre-Harappan, while proto-Harappan cultures are those pre-Harappan cultures which have some close similarities with the Harappan culture or which may be said to have anticipated certain essential elements of Harappan culture. In short, all proto-Harappan cultures are necessarily pre-Harappan cultures, but all pre-Harappan cultures are not necessarily proto-Harappan cultures.
Script and Language
Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish and a variety of human forms. The script was boustrophedon i.e. written from right to left in one line and then from left to right in the next line. The number of signs of the Harappan script is known to be between 400 and 600. The language of the Harappans is still unknown because Harappan script is still undeciphered.
Pottery
Harappan Pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well baked.
It is chiefly wheel made, and consists of both plain and painted ware, the plain variety being more common.
Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed, polychrome, incised, perforated
and knobbed. The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the ancient world.
On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character, though the painted designs on
some pieces show a remarkable artistic touch.
Seals
These are the greatest artistic creations of the Indus people.
Most commonly made of steatite (soft stone).
The technique of cutting and polishing these seals with white luster was a unique invention of the
Harappans.
The majority of the seals have an animal engraved on them with a short inscription.
Unicorn is the animal most frequently represented on the seals.
Main type - (a) the square type with a carved animal and inscription,
(b) the rectangular type with inscription only.
Burial Practices
Three forms of burials are found at Mohenjodaro are complete burials. fractional burials (burial of some bones after the exposure of the body to wild beasts birds) and post-cremation burials.
But the general practice was extended inhumation, the body lying on us back, with the head generally to the north.
Religion
The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Siva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne, and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each lacing a different direction, and two deer appear at his feet.
The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms
There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of the phallus, have been discovered.
The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal. Kalibangan and Harappa.
Indus people also worshipped Gods in the form of trees (peepal, etc.) and animals (unicorn etc)
Further they believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.
Trade and Commerce
Inter regional trade was carried on with Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, South India, parts of Western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Foreign trade was conducted mainly with Mesopotamia and Bahrain. Trade was carried on by overland as well as overseas transport.
Bullock carts and pack-oxen were employed for land transport. There is evidence of sea and river transport by ships and boats in several seals and terracotta models, apart from the dockyard at Lothal. The Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with 'Meluha’ which was the ancient name given to
Indus region and they also speak of two intermediate stations called Dilmun (identified with Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast).
Decline of Harappan culture
After 2000 BC, the Indus culture slowly declined and gradually faded out. Some ascribe this to the
decreasing fertility of the soil on account of the increasing salinity, caused by the expansion of the
neighbouring desert. Some says that indus river flooded the region .
Still others point out that the Aryans destroyed it.
According to some scholars, decline of trade, particularly oceanic trade with the Sumerians,must have contributed partly in the decline. Even though there are various theories for the downfall of this
civilization, the most accepted version is that of ecological destruction.
Major Sites of Indus Valley civilization
1. Harappa
Harappa was an Indus civilization urban center. It lies in Punjab Province, Pakistan, on an old bed of the River Ravi.
The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then the Punjab province of British India, and is now in Pakistan
The Great Granary measuring 1 69 ft x 3 5 feet is the largest and the most remarkable structure found at Harappa.
So far 891 seals have been recovered from Harappa, and that is 40% of the total number of seals belonging to Indus Valley Civilization that have been found.
A red sandstone naked male torso has been found, which shows traces of Jainism
Between the granary and the citadel, have also been found a series of circular platforms, probably for the pounding of grain.
At a lower level below the granary, platforms and the citadel were crowded one-room dwellings, which suggest slave habitats.
2. Mohenjo daro
Great Bath, uniform buildings and weights, hidden drains and other hallmarks of the civilization were discovered in the 1920's. This is where the most unicorn seals have been found. Due to a rising water table, most of the site remains unexcavated, and its earliest levels have not been reached
In Sindhi language, the word Mohenjo Daro means mound of the dead’.
It is the largest of all Indus cities
The Great Bath is the most important public place, measuring 39 feet (length) X 23 feet (breadth) X 8 feet (depth).Located at the center of the citadel, it is remarkable for beautiful brickwork Its floor is made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar. It must have served as a ritual-bathing site
Remains have been found of an oblong multi-pillared assembly hall and a big rectangular building, which must have served administrative purposes.
Most of Mohenjodaro houses are built of kiln-fired brick
The major streets are 33 feet wide and run north-south, intersecting subordinate ones, running east-west at right angles.
The evidence of Indian ships (figured on a seal) and a piece of woven cloth has been discovered from here
There is a large granary consisting of podium of square blocks of burnt-bricks with a wooden superstructure
Parallel rows of two-roomed cottages found The workmen or poor sections Of the society perhaps used these cottages.
A bronze dancing girl,steatite statue of a priest and a seal bearing Pashupati have been found here
It is important to remember that Mohenjo daro shows nine levels of occupation towering over 300 feet above the present flood plain
Excavation reveals that the city was flooded More than seven times
3. Kalibangan
Has pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phases.
Less developed compared to Mohenjodaro
There is evidence of mud-brick fortification
Pre-Harappan phase here shows that the fields were ploughed unlike the Harappan period.
Archaeologists have discovered two platforms (within the citadel) with fire altars suggesting the practice of cult sacrifice
The existence of wheel conveyance is proved by a cartwheel having a single hub
4. Chanhudaro
Only Indus city without a citadel.
Chanhudaro is 80 miles south of Mohenjo Daro in Sindh.
It was a manufacturing center. Various tool, shell, bone and seal-making facilities which involved writing were found.
Beads were made using efficiently layered floors
Existence of Pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phase
A small pot was discovered here, which was probably an ink pot.
Excavations reveal that people of Chanhudaro were expert craftsmen. Archaeologists have discovered here metalworkers,shell-ornament makers and bead-makers shops
The city was twice destroyed by inundations.Here more extensive but indirect evidence of super-imposition of a barbarian lifestyle is seen
5. Dholavira
Dholavira is located on Khadir Beyt, an island in the Great Rann of Kutch in Gujarat State, India.
It is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana
It has only been excavated since 1990. As large as Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, it has some of the best preserved stone architecture.
A tantalizing signboard with Indus script has also been discovered.
The other Harappan towns were divided into two parts — Citadel and the Lower Town, but Dholavira was divided into three principal divisions, two of which were strongly protected by rectangular fortifications.
There are two inner enclosures — the first one hemmed in the citadel (which probably housed the highest authority)and the second one protected the middle town (meant for the close relatives of the rulers and other officials). The existence of this middle town, apart from the lower town, is the real exclusive feature of this city.
Dholavira appears to have had several large reservoirs, and an elaborate system of drains to collect water from the city walls and house tops to fill these water tanks.
6. Banwali
Like Kalibangan, Amri, Kot Diji and Harappa, Banwali also saw two cultural phases - pre-Harappan and Harappan.
Human and animal figures, clay bangles and statue of mother Goddess found here.
A large quantity of barley, sesame and mustard found here.
7. Surkotada
Excavations reveal a citadel and a lower town, both of which were fortified.
It is the only Indus site where the remains of a horse have actually been round.
8. Kot Diji
Pre-Harappan and Harappan phases found.
According to excavations, the city was probably destroyed due to fire
Wheel made painted pottery, traces of a defensive wall and well-aligned streets, knowledge of metallurgy, artistic toys etc.
Five figurines of Mother Goddess discovered.
9. Ropar
The excavations have yielded many cultures — Harappan, Kushana-Gupta and Medieval.
The evidence of burying a dog below the human burial is very interesting
One example of rectangular mudbrick ‘chamber was noticed.
10. Lothal
Only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. It must have served as the main seaport of the Indus people It was surrounded by a massive brick wall, probably as flood protection.
Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC) The only other Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmedabad.
Fire altars, indicating the probable existence of a fire cult, have been found
A doubtful terracotta figurine of horse is found here
11. Ganeriwala
Ganeriwala is in Punjab, Pakistan near the Indian border.
It was first discovered by Sir Aurel Stein and surveyed by Dr. M. R. Mughal in the 1970s.
It spreads over 80 hectares and is almost as large as Mohenjo Daro. It is near a dry bed of the former Ghaggar or Sarasvati River, and has not been excavated, yet.
Equidistant between Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, Ganweriwala may have been a fifth major urban center.
12. Gola Dhoro
(Also known as Bagasara) is a site in Gujarat, India, excavated from 1996 to 2004.
A distinctive ancient Indus seal was found there, as well as extensive evidence for the sudden evacuation of this tiny town with well stocked manufacturing facilities.
13. Daimabad
Daimabad is in Maharashtra near Bombay. Discovered in 1958, it is a controversial site.
Some suggest that the pottery and single shard with ancient Indus signs on it is definitive of Harappan settlement; others say the evidence is not sufficient.
A unique hoard of exquisite bronze chariots and animals that may or may not be of Indus Civilization style was also found here
